This write up is about Sake Dean Mahomet and his extraordinary life. This was done as part of the coursework of the subject "Hitch" under the guidance of Professor Chinmay Tumbe at IIM Ahmedabad in February 2019.
Have used sources and image credits. Please flag in case of any concern. I will appropriately consider and take it down if need be.
I. About the person
Sake
Dean Mahomet (or, Sheikh Deen Mohammad) was born in India in 1759[1]
at Patna in the present day state of Bihar. While one of his published books
mentions his year of birth as 1749[2],
most other reference materials point towards 1759. Assuming that there has been
a typographical error in the same, the author goes ahead with 1759. Some
accounts mention he reinvented his birth year to 1749 to show his mature age
which would have been crucial for his then business endeavour. He mentions
himself as the native of Patna in Bengal, which had then constituted the modern
day state of Bihar as well. From his own accounts, he came from an elite Muslim
family and had distant relations with the Nawabs of Bengal and Bihar.
Reportedly, his ancestors had served at administrative functions in the Mughal
empire and with the weakening might of the empire and especially the ascendancy
of the East Indian Company as the ruling class in Bengal, his family believed
that serving in the company was the best practice available.
(Most
widely circulated image of Sake Dean Mahomet, from the February 2013 edition of
the Economist. Source: http://tinyurl.galegroup.com/tinyurl/9AEg58)
He
was educated to the profession of a Surgeon and served in the East India
Company’s Services division after he had joined them at the age of 11. He was
later absorbed into the main division of the military services exclusively and
was retained for 15 years in that capacity.[3]
In the year 1780, he was appointed to a company under then Major Popham and
rose through the ranks to become a Subedar.[4]
Under Captain Godfrey Baker, he fought the decisive wars against the Marathas
and several other battles, viz., Cheyt Singh of Benaras - all pivotal in the growth of the Company’s empire in
India. By early 1780s, he had resigned from the services and followed Captain Baker to Cork, Ireland.
He
would then marry here, go on to become an illustrious personality and
permanently settle on the British isles and spend the rest of his lifetime
there, making remarkable accomplishments. He died in February 1851. He is
buried in St Nicholas’s churchyard with “Patna, Hindoostan” written on his
tombstone. Martin Hickman, a renowned journalist in the UK remembers his
contribution as “an extraordinary man who
spiced up the life of an entire nation.”[5]
Such fame was achieved quite rarely and by a tiny fraction of Indians migrating
to Britain back in the time. Most servants in the UK simply lost out to their
identity and anonymous existence.[6]
(Mahomat’s
tombstone.
Source:https://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/page_id__11304_path__0p116p171p408p0p116p1442p1395p1963p.aspx)
II. Emigrating to Britain
II.A.
Life in Ireland: Majority accounts put 1782 as the year in
which Mahomet resigned from the services and accompanied Captain Baker to
Ireland. Mahomet saw Baker as his best friend and did not want to lose his
companionship which would have otherwise given him an uneasy mind. This, along with the desire to see the parts of the
world propelled him to take a one way voyage from India to Europe. In September
1784, at the age of 25, he landed at Dartmouth in England.[7]
Initially he spent time with the Baker family in Ireland on the relatively well
to do parts of South Mall. He used to work at the Baker household as a ‘manager’ and not as a servant, while not
truly being a gentleman yet.
While
his life in Ireland is not well documented, a major source comes from the
writings of Mirza Abu Talib Khan, who visited the Bakers in December 1799 and
is counted as one of the most illustrious Indians of his era to have visited
Britain and documenting his travels. As per Talib’s accounts, Mahomet was sent
to an English medium school. At this school, he met a young woman from a
reputed household in Cork. He went on to marry this woman ‘known to be fair and beautiful’, only after eloping to a different
town and returning subsequently only after their wedding. His wedding with Jane Daly, happened in 1786 after he had
converted to Christianity. Talib also goes on to document how the Mahomets had
‘several beautiful children’ and had
accumulated some wealth and lived in a separate household.[8]
The inter-religious and inter-racial marriage such as this was almost
completely unheard of, especially given the unfavourable connotation around
Indians and Islam in Britain. The fact that they had to elope may point towards
a possible resentment. However, Talib’s accounts maintain that the Baker family
continued its friendly patronage to the Mahomets, even after their wedding.
(coloured
lithograph, circa 1820. Source: https://www.aramcoworld.com/en-US/Articles/March-2018/The-Shampooing-Surgeon-of-Brighton)
II.B.
The first English language book published by an Indian:
The travels of Dean Mahomet is widely accepted to be the first proper English
language book published by an Indian. It was published in 1794 at Cork, as a
series of letters written by Sake Dean Mahomet to his imaginary friend.[9]
He published his book in 1792 in Cork under the patronage of Sir William Jones,
an the famous orientalist who had helped set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal
in 1784.The book is now published in 2 separate volumes. The book, written as a
travelogue and an experiential journey gives fascinating account of the growth
and the battle of the British empire in the 18th century. The book gives this
dynamic political shift from the perspective of an Indian working with the
Company - very different from the most well documented annals by the Imperial
historians and accountants on one side and the freedom fighting narratives of
Indians on the other side.
(The
cover of the recent version of his travelogue. Second image shows a sample of
his letters)
The
book talks about the landmark happenings in the battles fought in Bengal, the
Nawabs of Oudh etc. It is not only the historical accounts of these battles but
also the description of the ruling class, the city lifestyle and landscape of
some of the prominent Indian cities of that time as well as a commentary on the
then Indian societal structure and especially that of the Muslims, who were
after 3-4 centuries of being the prominent ruling class, were now slowly fading
out of prominence. Having gone through the book, it also shows the prowess of
Mahomet in learning English and writing a well subscribed book in it. It still
remains the only account in English by an Indian of the Company’s conquest
during the sunset of the Mughals. The value of it being a source of historical
evidence is priceless. While critical of the Imperial excesses, do not go into
questioning the fundamental questions like their presence, legitimacy and
control of Indian territories.
II.C.
Arrival in London: About 1807-08, Mahomet moves to England and
London in particular. There is no documented reason attributing this move post
two and a half decades in Cork, and his presence is first recorded in London
post the birth of his daughter, Amelia, in August 1808. He was reported to stay
near the vogue Portman Square in London, which had some semblance of Indian
population. He got employment under an India returned Sir Basil Cochrane, as an
employee in a vapour bath Sir Cochrane had setup.[10]
III. Business
entrepreneurial ventures:
III.A. Hindoostanee
Coffee-House: The Coffee House, more like in the nature of
Indian Coffee Houses in India, served a broader range of menu and food items,
alongside coffee. It was setup in 1810 at 34 George Street at Portman Square.
It is arguably the very first Indian business enterprise, setup by an Indian
native in a restaurant business.[11]
The advertisement in the TIME suggests it to be a venture of economic logic
being served by cultural-ethnic entrepreneurship. The establishment largely targeted
the Anglo-Indian community and offered Indian flavoured Hukkah and Indian
cuisine.[12]
The dishes were called ‘in the highest
perfection, and allowed by the greatest epicures to be unequalled to any
curries ever made in England.’ The ambience of the establishment also
closely resembled an Indian setting. His prowess in marketing was intuitive and
revolutionary for that time.[13]
In
a pure business sense, Mahomet offered a clearly differentiated product
positioning - authentic Indian food in localised ambience. The restaurant was
contingent on the Anglo-Indian patronage and initially did good business. It
also expanded into the 35 George Street. The efforts to tackle the
non-favourable licensing bylaws for a restaurant operation would have been
immense. Mahomet struggled to develop a loyal set of customers - a target group
who visits the restaurant frequently and are quintessential for the sustained
business of such a setup. His lack of business sense did not augment well,
despite his novelty in offerings. Besides, his rapid expansion also came back
to hurt him financially. Consequently, he had to file for bankruptcy in the London Gazette in 1812.[14] Later on, he conceded his plan was to serve
“Indianised” British food - targeting Indian aristocracy in London and the
Britons who had returned from India. In his own words, “The Indian aristocracy however would not come out to eat in the
restaurant because they had chefs at home cooking more authentic food - it was
just not big enough draw to come out.”[15]
While this was an unexpected business setback, Dean Mahomet became wiser with
his newly acquired business insights.
The
legacy of the Hindoostanee Coffee House was not forgotten though. At the turn
of the century, the century-editions of several famous food magazines
recognised it for ‘Asiatic
embellishments’ etc. Despite the short lived span of operations, it finds
space in the 19th century editions of ‘Good Food Guide’, ‘The Epicure’s
Almanack’ etc. Almost 190 years later, a Green Plaque celebrating the
achievements of Sake Dean Mahomet was unveiled in September 2005 in the George
Street.[16]
He has remembered as the pioneer for his first curry based restaurant in
England, where such types of business flourish in numbers and revenues. In
fact, the Epicure’s Almanack, published by Ralph Rylance in 1815 and London’s
first restaurant guide pays tribute to the Coffee House as, “All the dishes were dressed with curry powder, rice, cayenne and the
best spices of Arabia. A room was set apart for smoking from hookahs with
oriental herbs. The rooms were neatly fitted up en suite, and furnished with
chairs and sofas made of bamboo canes. Chinese pictures and other Asiatic
embellishments, representing views in India, oriental sports, and groups of
natives decorated the walls.”[17]
(The plaque outside George Street
commemorating Sake Dean Mahomed’s Hindoostane Coffee House, 1810.)
III.B. Back to search for employment:
Suffering financial distress, he self-advertised in 1813, looking for an
employment opportunity - even in positions of a valet or butler. William, his
son, was employed as a postman in London and at 16, did not make enough money
for the entire family to subsist. For a couple of years, there is not much
recorded history and even Mahomet in his autobiography did not mentions in any
details apart from his musings depicting general struggles.
III.C. Back to the Vapor
Bath Business - the introduction of Shampooing in Britain & the setting up
of Mahomet’s famous entrepreneurial legacy: While
initially working at Sir Cochrane’s Vapor Bath, he was credited with
introducing an Indian form of treatment - still known to the natives of the
subcontinent and famous as champi. For
local Britons, it was a novel thing and the word champi got anglicised with usage into the modern day word “Shampoo”. Still not over his loss from
his previous enterprise, Mahomet arrived at Brighton in 1814, and called
himself as the “shampoo surgeon” at the Devonshire Place bath-house.[18]
Brighton
was gaining popularity in that period because of the alleged health benefits of
the sea bathing, which was patronised in medical accounts. The advent of the
Railways to Brighton massively improved accessibility and led to a population
upsurge from 2000 in 1750 to 65000 in 1850.[19]
One Dr Awister started the trend of indoor therapeutic bathing in Brighton in
1769. Mahomet again used his differentiator of providing the “Indian treatment” to stand out from the
clutter of similarly offered services. He named it the ‘Indian Vapour Baths and
Shampooing Establishment. He stressed on the Indian-ness and the same cultural
entrepreneurship - using oils and ingredients, which were imported exclusively
from India.
He
later on went to stake a claim that his process, that of shampooing, was novel and more efficient than the other existing
processes. He has written an entire expansive book - “Shampooing: Or Benefits
Resulting From The Use Of The Indian Medicated Vapor Bath” in 1826. This book
documents his own experience as well as the multitudes of testimonials of
patients who had benefited from the process. He also lists down detailed
therapeutic processes for different diseases, viz., Asthma, Contractions,
Paralysis etc.
However,
his adventure faced stiff resistance from those who did not believe in his
methods and instead went on to ridicule them. In a side account, his son
Horatio claimed that there was a strong public abuse and general disdain from
the medical community. The common people also thought it to be some sort of an
oriental bluff and called it a ‘Hindoo
juggle.’[20]
This led to Mahomet facing the same issue he faced with Hindoostane Coffee
House - failure to build in a clientele. With more sense of business and
maturity, Mahomet started providing free patient care and treatment, and later
when the effectiveness of the same was vouched by the beneficiaries, he started
gaining prominence and his business shot off.
(Artist
depiction of Mahomed’s Baths at Brighton, source: https://www.aramcoworld.com/en-US/Articles/March-2018/The-Shampooing-Surgeon-of-Brighton)
In
1821, he moved to a new setup called the “Mahomed’s Baths’. The property was
based on a sea facing cliff, further enhancing the oriental and Grecian
exotica.[21]
His own wife Jane was made supervisor for the female visitors. The fame reached
beyond Brighton and found mentions in the newspapers of London. Various claims
staked that people worldwide would visit his bath facility and not only the
ailing and the sick. The visitor’s book he maintained shows the loyalty and the
patronage he had won. Royal members from the British setup, members of the
aristocracy, Royal members from foreign countries like Princess Poniatowsky of
Poland - all became loyal customers of Mahomet’s facilities.[22]
His fame reached peak when he was appointed the official “Shampooing Surgeon” to King George IV and subsequently Under
William IV. This led to him setting up a facility at the Royal Pavilion - for
the usage of members of the Royal family.
This
made him more famous than ever, and his clientele swelled up. He set up another
facility at 7 Ryder Street in London, which was supervised by his son Horatio.
The medical community also started acknowledging the efficacy of his manners
and recommended it to their patients. This also saw his business being rivalled
- most notably by the Molineux’s. However, a strong association with the Indian
differentiator resisted much of these competition. In 1841, he became a
Brighton citizen and became eligible to vote.[23]
He retired from work at the age of 75 and passed on the management to his son
Arthur. IN 1837, when Queen Victoria ascended the throne, Brighton lost
prominence and with it, most of its institutional setups. A financial setback
in 1851 le to the collapse of his Baths and he died in February 1851. He is
buried in St Nicholas’s churchyard with “Patna, Hindoostan” written on his
tombstone.
(Portrait
of Sake Dean Mohamed in the Brighton Museum.
Source:
https://brightonmuseums.org.uk/discover/fa000843_d01_ab10/)
IV. Modern history of
people from Indian subcontinent in Britain
The
presence of people from the modern day Indian subcontinent in Britain has been
a phenomenon with real numbers starting from the early 1700s.[24]
They were from three broad categories: the Ayahs,
the Lascars and the Royals. 22nd December 1616 is the first officially
documented date when an Indian brought to Britain was baptised and Christened
by the name Peter.[25]
From the 17th century onwards, the British families returning from India often
brought along domestic servants and nannies to the isles. (Ayahs) Alongwith the
Indian sailors, the Lascars, they
constituted the earliest working class Indians in Britain. From the middle of
19th century to the next 100 years - students, royals, businessmen etc. started
flocking to Britain.
Sake
Dean Mahomet stands out amongst the string of notable people on two broad
grounds - (a) he migrated to the isles pretty early - early 1780s and, (b) he
was from a working class who rose phenomenally through the ranks while in
Britain. He spent nearly 75 years in Britain, first in the Georgian Irish lands
and then the English isles.
V. Family and lineage: We
have already talked about this wife Jane, a young Irish lady belonging to a well-respected
household in Cork. There are disputed claims that he married twice and the
woman’s name was also Jane. His eldest son William (1797-1833) worked as a
postman till his death, based out of London. His three other sons followed him
in his business ventures. They were provided modern training of the times. One
of his son, Dean Mohamad learned medical surgical practices from Thomas
Mapleton. He went on to manage the London Bath establishment. However, with his
death in 1836, the setup was taken over
by a rival.[26]
Horatio, managing the Ryder Street Bath faced financial insolvency in 1850s and
resurrected a smaller setup in Portman Street (around 50 years after Sake Dean
Mahomet had setup his maiden Coffee House in the same area). Horatio came
closest to his father’s fame and recognition. He also published his own book on
the benefits of bathing, following in his father’s footsteps.[27]
His youngest son Arthur, inherited the original Brighton establishment which
was already in a decline phase by then. Like Jane, Arthur’s wife Amelia tended
to women patients.
Another
son, Frederick Mahomed, stayed away from Baths altogether and set up a fencing
academy and gym and is arguably the first to establish a gym and an orthopaedic
premise in his native town.[28]
He became a well renowned Fencing instructor and his wife worked with young
girls in Swedish musicals to help them get a healthy figure. In fact, Frederick
Mahomed’s contributions are so immense in itself that it would be unjust to
mention him as a mere corollary in a report on his father’s life caricature.
However, given the limited scope of this paper, the author would not delve deep
into it. Not much is known about Sake Dean Mahomet’s daughters or their
lineage.
The
third generation of Mahomet’s family became distinguished doctors, academic,
Church of England Vicar, Minister in London’s government, architect, dental
surgeon etc. Sake Dean Mahomet’s grandson, Frederick Akbar Mahomed was one of
the pioneering doctors in the field of hypertension and made path breaking
research contributions to the study of high blood pressure.[29]
Another grandson, Rev. James Kerriman Mahomet was appointed as the Vicar of
Hove, Suxxex. Two of Sake Dean Mahomet’s grandsons are reported to have fought
in World War I in France. Lt Claude Atkinson Elly Mahomed was a civil engineer
by profession and was serving with the Scots Guards when he was killed in
action in August 1917. Another was killed in the war serving with the Royal
Flying Corps.[30]
(RFC) Hence, with time, they got absorbed and assimilated into the British
society.
VI. Legacy, the Post-colonial
era significance and conclusion
Mahomet
also authored other texts such as “Cases, Cured and Shampooing Surgeon,
Inventor of the Indian Medicated Vapour and Sea Water Baths, etc.” His legacy
was almost forgotten in the Victorian era post his death, apart from some
information available in the Royal Pavilion in Brighton and some comparative
literature. It was only until in the 1970s and the 1980s, when British poet and
scholar Alamgir Hashmi drew attention to his works and brought him back to
literary and historical discourse.[31]
Michael H Fischer, then picked on it and edited his journals, available to us
now.
(The
printing statement on his book on Shampooing, procured by VSL, IIM Ahmedabad on
author’s request. This shows how mammoth an effort was placed to conserve his
writings and for how long it was much into oblivion. Second image shows a
sample of a beneficiary testimony).
The
writings of Sake Dean Mahomet were first published more than 200 years ago, and
he identified with the English and the Anglo-Irish and were involved in the
imperial enterprises.[32]
Professor Susheila Nasta, member of the Migration Museum Project and editor of
Wasafiri, a magazine on issues related to diaspora and migration, argues that
Sake Dean Mahomet’s writings were quite strategic in the sense that he was
juxtaposing and negotiating different cultural and racial roles, whether
assimilative, subversive or exploitative.
That
he was “self-consciously manipulative of
the prevailing attitudes of the society he lived in” and through his two
seminal works, positioned himself within a spectrum of differing inflection
points. Thus, a hypothesis here could be that the reason why he was successful
and most of his contemporaries were not was because he was careful to exempt
himself from being marked out in the ideological conflict zone of East v West,
Colonizers v Colonized, or to take up an assertive cultural identity or
political standpoint.[33]
Thus, he avoided the much debated concept in literature - of the burden of
representation placed upon minority writers.[34]
This is in beautiful contradiction of his accounts as a pure source of history.
Professor Mona Narain at Texas Christian University in fact argues that he keeps up the balancing act of being the
marginalised insider in India and the marginalised outsider in Britain and
writes to familiarise his alien identity to the British public.[35]
Similarly, unlike the other major works, he does not satirize Indian culture[36]
but shows a sense of belongingness with the British identity and culture.[37]
This fits well with him leaving India, enjoying the Baker family patronage,
converting to Christianity to marry Jane and serve Royal and Aristocratic class
in Britain.
The
work was also primarily written for an anglophone readership. The Travels of Sake Dean Mahomet in the
domain of autoethnographic and autobiographical narratives. Fisher, a renowned
biographer and the editor of his autobiography in its modern version, argues
that Mahomet resisted the imperial British statement of cultural hegemony and
asserted their own perspective.[38]
“These representations reveal the
complexity and hybridity of the imperial process and the ongoing negotiations
between Asians and Britons about European conceptions of Asian and European
roles in India."[39]
This goes into stark contrast to the work of the Muir Brothers, much relied in
the West as authority on the same subject for their seminal works. This also
ties down to the discussions in the initial lectures of the Hitch lectures
itself, where the debates around the utility of the imperial empire on the
Indian subcontinent were mentioned.
While
not identical, but a similar analysis can be done about the works of the Ignatius Sancho the first African
heritage person to vote in British election. Called the extraordinary negro, he became the symbol of the rising British
conscience about the immorality of slavery. Similar to Sake Dean Mahomet’s
writings, Sancho published one of the first books written in English by a
former slave, giving his viewpoint of the slave trade and written for the
British anglophone audience.[40]
Ignatius Sancho for once deserves a separate research project in his own
accord, the author mentions him because of (a) parlance of Sake Dean Mahomet in
context of colonial representation and perspective through a native writing in
English and (b) his rise to stature and symbolism in the culturally complex
British isles and Europe.
[1] Preface to Sake Deen Mahomet’s “Shampooing: Or Benefits
Resulting From the Use of the Indian Medicated Vapor Bath” (Kessinger Legacy
Reprints). [hereinafter Shampooing]
[2] Ibid.
[3] Dean
Mahomet, The Travels of Dean Mahomet (Cork: Printed by J. Connor, 1794), pp.
17– 19.
[4] Visram,
Rozina. Asians in Britain : 400 Years of History, Pluto Press, 2002. ProQuest
Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/iimahd/detail.action?docID=5390955 last accessed on
26th February 2019. [hereinafter Rozina 2002];
[5] Hickman, M. 2005. Sake Dean Mahomed: The man who opened
Britain’s first curry house, nearly 200 years ago. Independent, 30 Available
online: <http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/
profiles/sake-dean-mahomed-the-man-who-opened-britains-first-
curry-house-nearly-200-yars-ago-5348139.html> last accessed on 26 February
2019.
[6] Rozina Visram, “Ayahs, Lascars and Princes: The Story of
Indians in Britain” (Routledge, 2015) p. 12.
[7] Travels
of Mahomet , p. 127.
[8] Rozina 2002, pp 38.
[9] Ken Monteith, “Corporate Bodies/Colonial Exchange:
Amatory Authority and Familial Extension in the Travels of Dean Mahomet”, in
“Muses India: Essays on English Language - Writers from Mahomet to Rushdie”,
edited by Chetan Deshmane, (McFarland & Company Inc, 2012) [available
through Proquest service at VSL Library, IIMA]
[10] Rizonna 2002, pp 38.
[11] Monroe,
J 2004, Star of India : The Spicy Adventures of Curry, John Wiley & Sons,
Incorporated, New York. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. p 64. [27
February 2019].
[12] Robin
Ward and Richard Jenkins, eds, Ethnic Communities in Business (Cambridge
University Press, 1984); The Times, 27 March 1811;
[13] The
Times, 20 April 1813 as cited in Michael H Fishcer, “The Travels of Dean
Mahomet” (University of California Press, 1997) p. 237-8. [Hereinafter as Fisher]
[14] Rozinna 2002, pp 40.
[15] “Curry house founder is honoured” (BBC NEWS, 29
September 2005), available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/4290124.stm last accessed on 26 February 2019.
[16] Vivek Kavadia, “The Soldier Who Set Up London’s First
Indian Restaurant 200 Years Ago” (Homegrown, 13 March 2017), available at https://homegrown.co.in/article/800268/london-s-first-indian-restaurant last accessed on 26 February 2019.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Sir
Evan Cotton, ‘Sake Deen Mahomed of Brighton’, Sussex County Magazine, vol. 13,
1939, pp. 746– 50.
[19] Rizonna 2002, pp 40.
[20] Mahomet Shampooing p. 7.
[21] Rizonna 2002, p 42.
[22] From “Ode to Mohamed” in Shampooing. (picture attached
later in the document)
[23] Fisher, p. 303.
[24] Rozina Visram, “Ayahs, Lascars and Princes: The Story of
Indians in Britain” (Routledge, 2015) p. 1.
[25] Rizonna 2002, p. 1.
[26] Fisher p. 266
[27] The
Times , 27 and 30 March 1844.
[28] Rizonna 2002, p. 150.
[29] J Stewart Cameron and Jackie Hicks, “Frederick Akbar
Mahomed and his role in the description of hypertension at Guy’s Hospital,”
Kidney International, Vol. 49 (1996), pp. 1488-1506 (Historical Archive edited
by Carl Gootschalk), available at https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0085253815595033/1-s2.0-S0085253815595033-main.pdf?_tid=4f368947-5e6f-440c-8035-4ea849fcb7ae&acdnat=1551210330_6834e0e6df1d6693fac805a04710f67f last accessed on 27th February 2019.
[30] Claude
was A.G.S. Mahomed’s son, PRO: WO 339/66754; the RFC Mahomed was James Kerriman
Mahomed’s son, SDN , 16 January 1935, as cited in Rizonna 2002 p. 151.
[31] Dean Mahomet: travel writer, curry entrepreneur and
shampooer to the king, (History Ireland, Issue 5 - September/October 2007),
available at https://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/dean-mahomet-travel-writer-curry-entrepreneur-and-shampooer-to-the-king/ last accessed o 27 February 2019.
[33] Susheila Nasta, Home
Truths: Fictions of the South Asian Diaspora in Britain, Basingstoke:
Palgrave, 2002, p. 17.
[34] Gunning,
D. (2008) ‘Daljit Nagra, Faber Poet: Burdens of Representation and Anxieties of
Influence’, The Journal of
Commonwealth Literature,
43(3), pp. 95–108. doi: 10.1177/0021989408095240.
[35] Mona Narain, SEL Studies in English Literature
1500-1900, Volume 49, Number 3, Summer 2009, pp. 693-716 (Article)
[36] Jagvinder Gill, “Reverse Orientalism in the Texts of
Sake Dean Mahomed” (University of Warwick, CTCCS Doctoral Conference 2008),
available on https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/currentstudents/postgraduate/pgconferences/confpublications/final_version_2008_doctoral_conference_papers.pdf#page=7 last accessed on 27 February 2017.
[37] Ibid.
[38] Michael H Fisher, “Writing lives of Indians in early
nineteenth century India and Britain”, (2013), available at https://philpapers.org/rec/FISWLO-2 last accessed on 27th February 2019.
[39] Malik,
J., ed. Perspectives of mutual encounters in South Asian history, 1760-1860. P
96. Leiden: BRILL, 2000. Accessed February 27, 2019. ProQuest Ebook Central.
[40] Susheila Nasta (ed.), “Reading the ‘New’ Literatures in
a Postcolonial Era” (DS Brewer, 2000) available at https://books.google.co.in/books?id=YCZhwvyMHt0C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false last accessed on 27 February 2019.
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